Silica, primarily in the form of silicon dioxide (SiO₂), is emerging as a critical mineral, underscored by its pivotal role in various high-tech applications.
Silica’s role is heralded by solar photovoltaics (PV), electronics, and renewable energy technologies.
Australia has a robust history of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) in downstream solar PV activities.
The country has pioneered developments such as the passivation emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell and advanced solar PV recycling technologies.
However, RD&D in midstream activities, such as the production of metallurgical silicon and polysilicon, have been historically lower, says CSIRO.
Despite this, Western Australia boasts industrial production of metallurgical silicon, providing a solid foundation for further advancements.
Global Demand and Supply Chain Vulnerabilities
The global energy transition necessitates a substantial increase in polysilicon production, with estimates suggesting a 10 to 12-fold rise in current capacity by 2030, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
This surge is crucial for supporting the burgeoning demand for solar PV and electronic products.
However, the supply chains are highly susceptible to disruptions due to their concentration in specific regions.
For instance, China currently dominates the global polysilicon market, producing over 80% of the world’s supply (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Production of silicon metal and polysilicon by country
This concentration poses risks, particularly in light of geopolitical tensions and trade restrictions.
Australia, with its rich silica resources, can play a crucial role in diversifying the global silicon supply chain.
Nevertheless, achieving this will require enhanced R&D efforts and international collaboration to deliver near-term commercial outcomes and long-term innovations.
Midstream Activities
Australia's key silicon supply chain gaps focus on the initial stages of midstream value addition and the recovery of high-value metals from solar PV waste (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Midstream processing of silica (Source: CSIRO)
Metallurgical Grade Silicon
Silicon metal, a key feedstock for producing solar and semiconductor-grade silicon, is produced by reducing silica quartz in a furnace using carbon as a reductant.
Despite being a mature technology, innovative carbothermal reduction techniques are being developed globally to enhance sustainability, reduce costs, and achieve higher purity levels.
For instance, HPQ Silicon in Canada has developed a process to convert quartz into silicon in a vacuum furnace using a plasma arc, achieving higher purities suitable for battery applications.
Polysilicon
For solar PV supply chains, metallurgical grade silicon is further refined to achieve solar and semiconductor grade purities.
Polysilicon is high-purity silicon (6N or above) produced from metallurgical grade silicon, suitable as feedstock for solar panel or semiconductor production.
This is possible through chemical vapour deposition (CVD) techniques or alternative metallurgical refining techniques.
The industry standard for solar photovoltaic cells is currently 9-11N purity monocrystalline silicon to support the push towards increasingly efficient solar cells.
Solar PV Recycling
Recycling of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) panels, the dominant panel type in Australia, is another critical area.
Current commercial PV recycling primarily involves mechanical processes to recover bulk materials, but significant progress is needed to enhance high-quality material recovery.
RD&D efforts focusing on state-of-the-art recycling technologies for high-purity silicon and metal extraction from solar cells can drive cost reductions and improve sustainability, making the PV recycling industry viable.
According to a report by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), global PV waste could reach 78 million tonnes by 2050, underscoring the importance of effective recycling solutions.
RD&D Challenges and Opportunities
Solar PV supply chains are well established globally, supported by mature extraction and refining technologies. ‘
However, emerging technologies aim to enhance sustainability and cost outcomes driven by extensive decarbonisation efforts.
Australia’s current commercial activity in the carbothermal reduction of silicon and research capabilities in the reduction of other metals present opportunities for expanded RD&D in this area (Figure 3).
Moreover, the availability of high-grade quartz deposits and potential biomass resources positions Australia advantageously for producing silicon metal with renewable resources.
The Australian government’s Critical Minerals Strategy plans to invest A$2 billion in critical minerals projects, highlighting the strategic importance of these resources.
Figure 3: Opportunities for Australian RD&D (Source: CSIRO)
International Collaboration
To overcome the challenges in producing metallurgical and battery-grade silicon, international collaboration and investment in domestic RD&D are crucial.
Collaborating with overseas original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and research organisations can help develop onshore capabilities and ensure sustainable processing practices.
For instance, initiatives like BioCarbUp in Norway, which optimises bio-resources for metallurgical processes, could serve as a model for Australia.
Conclusion
Silica, as a critical mineral, holds immense potential for Australia in the context of the global energy transition.
Enhancing RD&D activities, fostering international collaborations, and leveraging Australia’s rich silica resources can position the country as a significant player in the global silicon supply chain.
Addressing the challenges and seizing the opportunities in midstream processing and recycling will be crucial for achieving this goal and supporting the broader adoption of clean energy technologies.
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